What makes you who you are? Why do people differ so much in their behavior, feelings and thoughts? According to Sigmund Freud, personality formation begins in early childhood and proceeds through a series of psychosexual stages.
Freud argued that children face inner conflicts and urges at different stages of development. How these conflicts are resolved, he believed, would determine how the adult personality forms. His theory was revolutionary, but also controversial. Both in his own time and in modern psychology, his views provoked debate.
What exactly did Freud’s theory entail? What stages did he distinguish? And why, despite all criticism, does this theory still remain well-known and influential? This article takes a closer look at Freud’s view of personality development.
The psychosexual stages
According to Freud, personality develops through a series of stages in childhood. In each of these stages, the id’ s pleasure-seeking energy focuses on a specific area of the body, called an erogenous zone. These are body parts that are sensitive to stimulation and play a major role in psychological development.
Also read: Id, ego and superego by Sigmund Freud
Freud called this inner drive for gratification libido and described it as the driving force behind human behavior. He argued that a child goes through conflict at every stage. How this conflict is resolved, according to him, determines the extent to which a person later develops emotionally and socially healthy. If a conflict is not processed properly, according to Freud, a person can develop fixation, meaning that as an adult that person will remain stuck in the characteristics of that stage.
Freud distinguished five psychosexual stages:
- The oral stage (0-1 year) – Enjoyment and focus are on the mouth, such as sucking and biting.
- Anal stage (1-3 years) – Control over defecation becomes an important issue, which affects how a child learns discipline and order.
- The phallic stage (3-6 years) – The child discovers physical differences between boys and girls and begins to identify with the same-sex parent.
- The latent stage (6-12 years) – Sexual feelings fade into the background and the child focuses on social and intellectual development.
- The genital stage (puberty and beyond) – Sexual energy becomes focused on others and relationships outside the family become more important.
Freud believed that problems in any of these stages could lead to certain personality traits or behaviors later in life. In the following sections, we will look more closely at each of these stages and the influence Freud believes they have on personality development.
Oral stage
Age: birth to 1 year
Erogenic zone: mouth
The oral stage (birth to about 1 year) revolves around sucking, eating and the mouth area as the main source of pleasure and comfort. Activities such as sucking, sabbing and tasting provide a sense of security and pleasure.
According to Freud, this stage provides the basis for trust, comfort and attachment. Because the child is completely dependent on caregivers, it also develops a sense of trust and comfort through oral stimulation. The major conflict in this stage is the weaning process: the child must slowly learn to become less dependent on breastfeeding or a bottle.
Anecdote: A baby who is hungry immediately begins to cry. As soon as he drinks from the breast or bottle, he calms down. If the bottle is taken away too soon, he will protest by crying again.
Fixation in the oral stage
A fixation can result from too much or too little oral gratification, such as too early or too late weaning.
Fixation:
- A lack of oral gratification (for example, too early weaning or a lack of comfort) can lead to oral deprivation, which manifests as dependence, insecurity and a constant need for affirmation.
- Excessive oral gratification (e.g., excessive breastfeeding or excessive comfort through feeding) can lead to oral fixation, which can manifest as dependent behavior and a need for mouth-related habits.
Problems due to fixation:
- Nail biting, smoking, chewing gum or overeating
- Dependence on others for comfort and affirmation
- Talking or drinking in stressful situations
- Excessive gullibility or just cynicism
- Difficulty with independence and letting go of others
According to Freud, the oral stage determines the extent to which a person develops trust and how he or she later deals with dependency and comfort. A fixation can result in oral habits or emotional dependence in relationships.
Anal stage
Age: 1 to 3 years
Erogenic zone: bowel and bladder control
The anal stage (1 to 3 years) is all about control and autonomy, especially around potty training. The child must learn to control his body, which can lead to a sense of independence and pride.
How parents handle this, according to Freud, influences how a child later handles discipline, order and self-control. When parents are patient and positive about potty training, a child develops a sense of competence and productivity. In contrast, parents who are too strict or too lenient can contribute to problematic personality traits, according to Freud.
Anecdote: A toddler who is just becoming potty trained may be very proud when he goes to the potty on his own. But if parents are too strict and get angry at an accident, he may get frustrated and start resisting.
Fixation in the anal stage
A fixation at this stage can result from an overly strict or just too lax upbringing around potty training and behavioral rules.
Fixation:
- Overly strict toilet training can lead to an anal-retentive personality, characterized by perfectionism, rigidity and excessive cleanliness.
- Overly lax potty training can lead to an anal-expulsive personality, which manifests as sloppiness, impulsiveness and an aversion to discipline.
Problems due to fixation:
- Compulsive neatness or just extreme carelessness
- Excessive need for control and perfectionism
- Difficulty with authority and discipline
- Avarice or just excessive generosity
- Rigidity in thinking and behavior
- Stubbornness and difficulty compromising
According to Freud, the anal stage forms the basis for how a person deals with control, discipline and independence. A fixation can lead to extremes in behavior, such as an obsession with order and rules or, on the contrary, a total aversion to structure.
Phallic stage
Age: 3 to 6 years old
Erogenic zone: genitals
In the phallic stage, children begin to discover physical differences between men and women. This is also the stage when they identify with the same-sex parent and learn what behaviors are socially desirable.
Freud believed that boys may see their fathers as rivals for their mother’s love, a process he called the Oedipus complex. The boy wants his mother for himself and fears that his father will punish him for this. This fear Freud called castration anxiety.
With girls, Freud spoke of the electricity complex, in which a girl is attracted to her father and experiences rivalry with her mother. Freud stated that girls experience penis envy at this stage, meaning they feel inferior because they do not have a male sex part.
Freud claimed that girls never fully overcome this stage and that all women remain somewhat fixated. This idea received much criticism, including from psychologist Karen Horney, who found Freud’s theory sexist. She argued that men are actually jealous of women’s ability to bear children, which she called uterine jealousy.
Anecdote: A little girl tells her mother, “When I grow up, I want to marry Daddy!” This would be a natural process at this stage, according to Freud.
Fixation in the phallic stage
A fixation in the phallic stage can occur when a child faces excessive strictness or, on the contrary, too much freedom in discovering gender roles, identity and social expectations. This can lead to problematic behavior in adulthood.
Fixation:
- An overly strict or dismissive parenting climate can lead to insecurity about gender identity and low self-esteem.
- An overly lax or idolizing upbringing can lead to excessive self-confidence and narcissistic traits.
Problems due to fixation:
- Excessive narcissism and self-centeredness
- Constant need for approval and attention
- Problems with authority and rivalry
- Difficulty with gender identity and sexual relationships
- Tendency to excessive flirting or provocative behavior
- Feelings of guilt or shame around sexuality
According to Freud, an unresolved fixation at this stage could affect how a person views himself and others in relationships, especially in terms of self-confidence and sexuality.
Latent stage
Age: 6 to puberty
Erogenic zone: sexual feelings inactive
The latent stage (6 years to puberty) is a period when sexual energy temporarily takes a back seat and the child focuses on social skills, school performance and friendships. During this stage, the superego continues to develop and id energy is suppressed. Children now focus on intellectual and social growth.
Anecdote: A boy who used to play mostly with his mother now joins a soccer team and focuses more on friendships with peers.
Fixation in the latent stage
A fixation at this stage may arise from social rejection, lack of emotional support or too little space to develop social skills.
Fixation:
- A lack of social interaction can lead to shyness and difficulty with relationships later in life.
- Excessive emphasis on performance and discipline can result in perfectionism and an excessive need for approval.
Problems due to fixation:
- Difficulty with social skills and forming friendships
- Lack of self-confidence in social situations
- Attachment anxiety or difficulty with emotional intimacy
- Excessive focus on work or intellectual achievement at the expense of social relationships
- Problems with collaboration and team dynamics
- Suppression of emotions and difficulty with self-expression
According to Freud, the latent stage is important for the development of social skills and self-confidence. A disturbance during this period can cause a person to have difficulty with social relationships and emotional expression later in life.
Genital stage
Age: puberty to death
Erogenic zone: adult sexual interests
The genital stage (puberty to adulthood) marks the final stage of psychosexual development according to Freud. During this stage, the focus shifts from self-centered desires to mature sexuality, mutual relationships, and social responsibility.
Freud stated that if the previous stages are well completed, a person in this stage develops a balanced, warm and caring personality.
Anecdote: A teenager feels seriously in love for the first time and experiences strong emotions in a romantic relationship.Fixation in the Genital Stage
Fixation in the genital stage
A fixation in this stage can arise due to emotional, relational, or sexual difficulties during adolescence.
Fixation:
- A lack of healthy sexual and emotional development may lead to anxiety or insecurity in relationships.
- Excessive suppression of sexual feelings can result in a distant or inhibited attitude toward intimacy.
- An overemphasis on sexual activity may lead to obsessive or compulsive behavior in this area.
Problems Due to Fixation:
- Difficulty forming and maintaining intimate relationships
- Insecurity or anxiety about sexuality and intimacy
- Emotional detachment or fear of commitment
- Overdependence on others in relationships
- Issues with empathy and establishing equal partnerships
- Sexual inhibition or, conversely, promiscuous behavior
According to Freud, a successful transition into the genital stage is crucial for developing healthy, mature relationships. A fixation in this stage can lead to difficulties balancing personal needs with those of others in relationships and social interactions.
Critique of Freud’s psychosexual theory
Freud’s theory of psychosexual development has always been controversial. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, his thinking was revolutionary, but it has since been widely criticized. This comes from both scientific and feminist perspectives, as well as from cultural and anthropological perspectives.
Scientific criticism
One of the biggest objections to Freud’s theory is that it is difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as libido and fixation are not measurable, so there is no objective evidence that they really exist. Freud based his ideas largely on case studies of adult patients, not systematic research on children. This makes it difficult to prove that certain behaviors in adulthood actually stem from experiences in a specific stage of childhood.
In addition, Freud’s predictions are often too vague. How can anyone state with certainty that a particular habit or fear in adulthood can be traced directly to a conflict in, say, the oral or anal stage? The time span between cause and effect is too long to draw firm conclusions. Much modern psychological research has questioned or even completely disproved Freud’s ideas.
Excessive emphasis on sexuality
Freud saw sexuality as the main driver of human behavior. This idea has been criticized because it hardly considers other factors, such as social and cultural influences. Modern psychologists emphasize that personality development is much broader and that issues such as attachment, parenting and cognitive development are just as important. Freud’s theories paint a one-sided picture of why people behave the way they do.
Feminist criticism
Freud’s theory focuses heavily on male development and takes little account of female psychosexual development. Concepts such as penis envy are considered outdated and sexist by many psychologists. Feminist thinkers such as Karen Horney pointed out that Freud’s ideas were primarily based on a male perspective and that he did not sufficiently consider women’s psychology.
Freud, for example, argued that girls feel inferior to boys during the phallic stage because they do not have a penis. Horney turned this around and introduced the idea of uterine jealousy: men would feel inferior precisely because they could not bear children. This shows that Freud’s theories were heavily influenced by his own time and social attitudes.
Cultural and anthropological criticism
Freud’s theories were largely based on observations within a Western, patriarchal society. He took little account of cultural differences in parenting and family dynamics. Anthropological research has shown that not all cultures follow the same developmental patterns.
For example, anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski studied the Trobriand islanders and found that the Oedipus complex was rare there. In their culture, the father was a less dominant figure in parenting, so boys did not experience rivalry with him. This suggests that Freud’s theory is not universally applicable and that upbringing and culture play a much larger role in personality development than he thought.
Determinism and lack of flexibility
Freud’s theory is often seen as too deterministic. He argued that experiences in early childhood determine personality in later life. This means that if someone develops a problem, the cause should always be sought in childhood.
Modern psychology shows that personality continues to evolve throughout life. People can change through new experiences, therapy and personal growth. Freud’s view leaves little room for this flexibility and takes too little account of the possibility that people can reform themselves later in life.
Psychosexual development and homosexuality
Another criticism is that Freud’s theory focuses primarily on heterosexual development and largely ignores homosexuality. His model suggests that heterosexuality is the “normal” outcome of psychosexual development and that homosexual preferences are a deviation from this process.
Yet Freud himself had a more nuanced view of homosexuality than many of his contemporaries. He did not believe that homosexuality was a disease and opposed attempts to “correct” one’s sexuality. In a famous 1935 letter, he wrote to a mother who asked if he could treat her homosexual son:
“Homosexuality cannot be classified as a disease; we consider it a variation of sexual function caused by different sexual development.”
Although Freud did not see homosexuality as a disorder, his theory continued to assume that heterosexuality was the default. Modern psychology today sees sexuality as something largely influenced by biological and genetic factors, rather than as a deviation from a standard developmental path.
Freud’s lasting influence on psychology
Despite many criticisms, Freud remains one of the most influential figures in psychology. Many of his theories have been modified, criticized or even rejected, but the core of his work, that early experiences have a profound influence on personality, is still recognized.
Freud introduced concepts such as the unconscious, defense mechanisms and inner conflicts, which have laid the foundation for many modern psychological theories and therapies. Even if his psychosexual stages are not taken literally, his work has permanently changed the way we think about psychological development.
Although few contemporary psychologists still fully subscribe to Freud’s model of psychosexual development, his work has made significant contributions to our understanding of human development. Perhaps his greatest legacy is the idea that unconscious influences play a powerful role in human behavior. This insight has influenced not only psychology, but also fields such as literature, art and philosophy.
Freud’s theory also emphasized the importance of early experiences. Although there is still debate about the exact influence of early versus later experiences, developmental psychologists recognize that childhood events play a crucial role and can have lasting effects on a person’s life.
Contemporary psychoanalytic theories of personality development focus less on Freud’s original psychosexual stages and more on internalized relationships and interactions. They examine how people maintain self-esteem and how early relationships influence the way we interact with others later in life. These modern insights have emerged directly from the models Freud once introduced, demonstrating that despite all the criticism, his work still has an indispensable influence on psychology.
Conclusion
Freud’s theory of psychosexual development remains one of the most well-known and controversial theories in psychology. He argued that personality forms through a series of stages in which the libido focuses on different erogenous zones. According to him, conflicts in these stages can affect later personality, leading to fixations or certain behavioral traits.
Although his ideas were groundbreaking and had a major impact on psychology, they have also been strongly criticized. Scientific support is often lacking, and many of his theories are based on case studies rather than empirical research. In addition, his strong focus on sexuality is seen as limiting, and his concepts take too little account of cultural differences and the ongoing development of personality.
Yet some of Freud’s insights remain relevant. The idea that early experiences influence personality, that the unconscious plays a role in our behavior and that inner conflicts can guide us are still important themes in psychology. Freud’s work may not be uncontroversial, but it has undeniably shaped our thinking about the human mind and remains an inspiration to psychologists, philosophers and therapists worldwide.